History of the Laser

History of the Laser INTRODUCTION The name LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Light is really an electromagnetic wave. Each wave has brightness and color, and vibrates at a certain angle, so-called polarization. This is also true for laser light but it is more parallel than any other light source. Every part of the beam has (almost) the exact same direction and the beam will therefore diverge very little. With a good laser an object at a distance of 1 km (0.6 mile) can be illuminated with a dot about 60 mm (2.3 inches) in radius. As it is so parallel it can also be focused to very small diameters where the concentration of light energy becomes so great that you can cut, drill or turn with the beam. It also makes it possible to illuminate and examine very tiny details. It is this property that is used in surgical appliances and in CD players. It can also be made very monochromic, so that just one light wavelength is present. This is not the case with ordinary light sources. White light contains all the colors in the spectrum, but even a colored light, such as a red LED (light emitting diode) contains a continuous interval of red wavelengths. On the other hand, laser emissions are not usually very strong when it comes to energy content. A very powerful laser of the kind that is used in a laser show does not give off more light than an ordinary streetlight; the difference is in how parallel it is. Before the Laser there was the Maser In 1954, Charles Townes and Arthur Schawlow invented the maser (microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation), using ammonia gas and microwave radiation the maser was invented before the (optical) laser. The technology is very close but does not use a visible light. The maser was used to amplify radio signals and as an ultrasensitive detector for space research. Many different materials can be used as lasers. Some, like the ruby laser, emit short pulses of laser light. Others, like helium-neon gas lasers or liquid dye lasers emit a continuous beam of light. Laser action Lasers are possible because of the way light interacts with electrons. Electrons exist at specific energy levels or states characteristic of that particular atom or molecule. The energy levels can be imagined as rings or orbits around a nucleus. Electrons in outer rings are at higher energy levels than those in inner rings. Electrons can be bumped up to higher energy levels by the injection of energy-for example, by a flash of light. When an electron drops from an outer to an inner level, excess energy is given off as light. The wavelength or color of the emitted light is precisely related to the amount of energy released. Depending on the particular lasing material being used, specific wavelengths of light are absorbed (to energize or excite the electrons) and specific wavelengths are emitted (when the electrons fall back to their initial level). In a cylinder a fully reflecting mirror is placed on one end and a partially reflecting mirror on the other. A high-intensity lamp is spiraled around the ruby cylinder to provide a flash of white light that triggers the laser action. The green and blue wavelengths in the flash excite electrons in the atoms to a higher energy level. Upon returning to their normal state, the electrons emit their characteristic ruby-red light. The mirrors reflect some of this light back and forth inside the ruby crystal, stimulating other excited chromium atoms to produce more red light, until the light pulse builds up to high power and drains the energy stored in the crystal. High-voltage electricity causes the quartz flash tube to emit an intense burst of light, exciting some of the atoms in the ruby crystal to higher energy levels. At a specific energy level, some atoms emit particles of light called photons. At first the photons are emitted in all directions. Photons from one atom stimulate emission of photons from other atoms and the light intensity is rapidly amplified. Mirrors at each end reflect the photons back and forth, continuing this process of stimulated emission and amplification. The photons leave through the partially silvered mirror at one end. This is laser light. EINSTEINS THEORY OF LASER Although Einstein did not invent the laser his work laid the foundation. It was Einstein who pointed out that stimulated emission of radiation could occur along with spontaneous emission absorption. He used his photon mathematics to examine the case of a large collection of atoms full of excess energy and ready to emit a photon at some random time in a random direction. If a stray photon passes by, then the atoms are stimulated by its presence to emit their photons early. More remarkably, the emitted photons go in the same direction and have exactly the same frequency as the original photon ! Later, as the small crowd of identical photons moves through the rest of the atoms, more and more photons will leave their atoms early to join in the subatomic parade. All it took to invent the laser was for someone to find the right kind of atoms and to add reflecting mirrors to help the stimulated emission along .The acronym LASER means Light Amplification by (using Einsteins ideas about) Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Stimulated Emission A third type of photon-related electron transitions in an atom is stimulated emission. Suppose an electron is in a higher energy level and a photon comes along with an energy equal to the difference between the electrons energy and a lower energy.Then the photon will stimulate the electron to fall into the lower energy state, thereby emitting a photon. The emitted photon will have the same energy as the original photon, and viewed as waves we will then have two waves emerging from the atom in phase with the same frequency. Such waves will constructively interfere, leading to a more intense wave. This is the principle behind the laser, which stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. In a laser atoms are kept in an excited state by pumping the laser, and some photons are inserted. This causes some atoms to undergo stimulated emission, and the resulting photons cause other atoms to undergo stimulated emission, leading to a chain reaction. The resultant light is very intense and coherent (composed of one frequency), and can be easily focused. TYPES OF LASER ON THE BASIS OF ENERGY LEVEL Two level: In this photon from mata stable state jumps to second level on excitation Three level: In this photon from mata stable state jumps to third level on excitation Four level: In this photon from mata stable state jumps to fourth level on excitation ON THE BASIS OF MATERIAL USED Gas lasers Helium Neon Laser It is used in Interferometer, holography, spectroscopy, barcode scanning, alignment, optical demonstrations. Argon Laser It is used in Retinal phototherapy (for diabetes), lithography, confocal microscopy,spectroscopy pumping other lasers. Krypton Laser This laser is used in Scientific research, mixed with argon to create white-light lasers, light shows. Xenon ion Laser used in scientific research. In this type of laser many lines throughout visible spectrum extend into the UV and IR. Nitrogen Laser It is used in Pumping of dye lasers, measuring air pollution, scientific research. Nitrogen lasers can operate superradiantly (without a resonator cavity). Amateur laser construction. Carbon Dioxide laser It is used in Material processing (cutting, welding, etc.), surgery. It is produced by Transverse (high power) or longitudinal (low power) electrical discharge. Excimer Laser This type of laser is produced by excimer recombination via electrical discharge.It is used in Ultraviolet lithography for semiconductor manufacturing, laser surgery, LASIK Chemical lasers These type of lasers are used as directed-energy weapons like: Hydrogen Fluoride laser: It is formed by Chemical reaction in a burning jet of ethylene and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3) and is used in research for laser weaponry by the U.S. DOD, operated in continuous wave mode, can have power in the megawatt range. Deuterium fluoride laser: It is used in MIRACL, Pulsed Energy Projectile Tactical High Energy Laser COIL (Chemical oxygen-iodine laser): It is produced by Chemical reaction in a jet of singlet delta oxygen and iodine and is used in Laser weaponry, scientific and materials research, laser used in the U.S. militarys Airborne laser, operated in continuous wave mode, can have power in the megawatt range. DYE LASER: These type of lasers are used in Research, spectroscopy, birthmark removal, isotope separation. The tuning range of the laser depends on which dye is used. Metal-vapor lasers Helium-cadmium (HeCd) metal-vapor laser: They are used in Printing and typesetting applications, fluorescence excitation examination (ie. in U.S. paper currency printing), scientific research. Helium-mercury (HeHg) metal-vapor laser: They are used in Rare, scientific research, amateur laser construction. Helium-silver (HeAg) metal-vapor laser, Neon-copper (NeCu) metal-vapor laser: They are used in scientific research. Copper vapor laser: It is used in Dermatological uses, high speed photography, pump for dye lasers. Gold vapor laser: This type of laser is used in Rare, dermatological and photodynamic therapy uses. Solid-state laser Ruby laser: Used in Holography, tattoo removal. The first type of visible light laser invented; May 1960. Nd:YAG laser : used in Material processing, rangefinding, laser target designation, surgery, research, pumping other lasers (combined with frequency doubling to produce a green 532 nm beam). One of the most common high power lasers. Usually pulsed (down to fractions of a nanosecond) Er:YAG laser: used in Periodontal scaling, Dentistry Neodymium YLF (Nd:YLF) solid-state laser: Mostly used for pulsed pumping of certain types of pulsed Ti:sapphire lasers, combined with frequency doubling. Neodymium doped Yttrium orthovanadate (Nd:YVO4) laser: Mostly used for continuous pumping of mode-locked Ti:sapphire or dye lasers, in combination with frequency doubling. Also used pulsed for marking and micromachining. A frequency doubled nd:YVO4 laser is also the normal way of making a green laser pointer. Neodymium glass (Nd:Glass) laser: Used in extremely high power (terawatt scale), high energy (megajoules) multiple beam systems for inertial confinement fusion. Nd:Glass lasers are usually frequency tripled to the third harmonic at 351 nm in laser fusion devices. Cerium doped lithium strontium(or calcium) aluminum fluoride (Ce:LiSAF, Ce:LiCAF): Used in Remote atmospheric sensing, LIDAR, optics research. Erbium doped and erbium-ytterbium codoped glass lasers: These are made in rod, plate/chip, and optical fiber form. Erbium doped fibers are commonly used as optical amplifiers for telecommunications. Semiconductor laser Semiconductor laser diode has working wavelength between 0.4-20Â µm, depending on active region and are used in Telecommunications, holography, printing, weapons, machining, welding, pump. There are many different types of semiconductor lasers like: AlGaAs : used in Optical discs, laser pointers, data communications. 780 nm Compact Disc player laser is the most common laser type in the world. Solid-state laser pumping, machining, medical. InGaAsP : used in Telecommunications, solid-state laser pumping, machining, medical. Quantum cascade laser : used in Research,Future applications may include collision-avoidance radar, industrial-process control and medical diagnostics such as breath analyzers. Other types of lasers Free electron laser : This type of laser is having a broad wavelength range (about 100 nm several mm); one free electron laser may be tunable over a wavelength range and is basically used in atmospheric research, material science, medical applications. Gas dynamic laser : used In Military applications; can operate in CW mode at several megawatts optical power and is produced by Spin state population inversion in carbon dioxide molecules caused by supersonic adiabatic expansion of mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide. Nickel-like Samarium laser : It has pumping source Lasing in ultra-hot samarium plasma formed by double pulse terawatt scale irradiation fluences created by Rutherford Appleton Laboratorys Nd:glass Vulcan laser and first demonstration of efficient saturated operation of a sub-10 nm X-ray laser, possible applications in high resolution microscopy and holography, operation is close to the water window at 2.2 to 4.4 nm where observation of DNA structure and the action of viruses and drugs on cells can be examined. Raman laser, uses inelastic stimulated Raman scattering in a nonlinear media, mostly fiber, for amplification. It finds its applications in Complete 1-2 Â µm wavelength coverage; distributed optical signal amplification for telecommunications; optical solitons generation and amplification APPLICATIONS Industrial Applications of Laser Today, laser can be found in a broad range of applications within industry, where it can be used for such things as pointing and measuring. In the manufacturing industry, laser is used to measure the ball cylindricity in bearings by observing the dispersion of a laser beam when reflected on the ball.Laser also works as a spirit level and can be used to indicate a flat surface by just sweeping the laser beam along the surface. This is, for instance, used when making walls at building sites. In the mining industry, laser is used to point out the drilling direction. Laser technologies have also been used within environmental areas. One example is the ability to determine from a distance the environmental toxins in a column of smoke. Other examples are being able to predict and measure the existence of photochemical smog and ozone, both at ground level where it isnt wanted and in the upper layers of the atmosphere where it is needed. Laser is also used to supervise wastewater purification. Laser works as a light source in all fiber optics in use. It has greater bandwidth. It is insensitive to interference from external electrical and magnetic fields. Fiber optics is used increasingly often in data and telecommunications around the world. Medicine Laser is used in medicine to improve precision work like surgery. Brain surgery is an example of precision surgery that calls for the surgeon to reach the intended area precisely. To make sure of this, lasers are used both to measure and to point in the area in question. Birthmarks, warts and discoloring of the skin can easily be removed with an unfocused laser. The operations are quick and heal quickly and, best of all, they are less painful than ordinary surgery performed with a scalpel. RECENT APPLICATIONS DVD A DVD player contains laser that is used not because it produces a parallel beam, but rather because the light emerges from a tiny point, which enables it to be focused on the different layers of the disc. The information, ones and zeros, is stored in several layers, and only one layer is to be read at a time. Every point on a particular layer is read during every revolution of the disc. In order to make room for a lot of information on every disc, the beam has to be focused on as small an area as possible. This cannot be done with any other light source than a laser. Laser Pointers Lasers pointers are made from inexpensive semiconductors laser as together with lens produce a parallel beam of light that can be used to make a bright spot to point with. Their range is very large. If one points at a surface 200 meters (220 yards) distant in the dark, a person standing close to the object being pointed at will have no trouble seeing the shining spot (of course, someone else has to hold the laser). On the other hand, the one holding the pointer will have difficulty seeing the spot. The eternal question of range has more to do with the lights behavior on its way back to the sender than with the length of the beam. Laser Sights Laser sights for rifles and guns can be based on several different principles. Some send a laser beam parallel to the trajectory so that the point of impact becomes visible. This method exposes the marksman. Some project a red dot inside a telescopic sight (instead of cross hairs). In both cases, the dot can be produced with a ring around it. Speed Measurement Using Laser The method the police use to measure car speed is based on a laser signal that is sent towards the target. This beam bounces back and is mixed with light that has not hit the car. The result is an oscillation the same as when you tune a guitar with higher frequency (more treble) the faster the target moves. The speed has to be measured straight from the front or from the back. If it is measured at an angle, the speed is underrated. This means that you cannot get false values that are too high. The measurement is dependent on the car having something that reflects well. The license plate is perfect, as are different types of reflecting objects. Fogged surfaces are okay, but reduce the maximum distance. Laser Distance Meter The primary use of laser distance meters today is surveyors and constructors, Least spectacular is the so-called parking assistance that helps the driver to estimate the distance to the car behind when parking. A more recent application measures the distance to the car in front of the driver when driving on highways or other roads. You simply lock in the distance to the car in front of you in order to maintain that distance. This makes driving more efficient and faster as long as it all works. This kind of laser is found in most robots with mechanical vision. LASER DISCOVERIES 1971 Gabor (alone) was given the prize, having founded the basic ideas of the holographic method, which is a famous and spectacular application of laser technology. At first just a method of creating 3-D pictures, it has since become a useful tool for the observation of vibrating objects. Much of what we today know about how musical instruments produce their tones is due to the use of holograms. In addition to holograms that can be bought and hung on a wall, simpler holograms can be found on many other things where you might not expect to find them. Small holograms are present on many credit cards and identity cards in order to make them more difficult to forge. 1981 Bloembergen and Schawlow received the prize for their contribution to the development of laser spectroscopy. One typical application of this is nonlinear optics which means methods of influencing one light beam with another and permanently joining several laser beams (not just mixing them compare the difference between mixing two substances and making them chemically react with one another). These phenomena mean that a light beam can in principle be steered by another light beam. If in the future someone intends to build an optical computer (that could be much faster and much more efficient in storing data), it would have to be based on a nonlinear optic. When using optical fibers, for example in broadband applications, several of the switches and amplifiers that are used require nonlinear optical effects. 1997 Chu, Cohen-Tannoudji and Phillips et al. received the prize for their developments of methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light which is a method for inducing atoms to relinquish their heat energy to laser light and thus reach lower and lower temperatures. When their temperature sinks very close to absolute zero, atoms form aggregates (make clumps) in a way that reveals some of the innermost aspects of nature. And that is the important application of laser cooling, namely to make us understand more of nature. Very soon after the discovery other scientists started to use the technique to further develop closely related areas. 2000 Alferov and Kroemer were given the prize for their development within the field of semiconductor physics, where they had studied the type of substances that was first used to build semiconductor lasers, that is, the kind of miniature lasers that today have become the cheapest, lightest and smallest. The idea is to produce both the light source and energy supply and place the mirrors in one crystal (less than 1 mm facet, with many sequences). This has become not only the basis for many cheap and portable appliances, but also the foundation in optical information networks. The CD player, laser writer, laser pointer and the bar code reader the cashier at the supermarket uses, are all based on their discovery. REFRENCES NEWAGE PUBLISHER PVT. LTD.,LASERANDNONLINEAROPTICS,P.B LAUD macmillan publisher,laser theory and application,k.dhyacagrajan,ak.ghatak universities publishers,laser,e.a siegman http://www.nobel.org

Cutlass Olds

It was purchased a family car, as well as a dally driver to and from work. It rolled off the line from the factory with a turquoise vinyl Interior, bucket seats, a center console, head rests, as well as air conditioning and other accessories. Many stories have been told from the adventures endeavored from behind the driver's seat of the car. Now however, its two tone Cameo White body, and Glade green hardtop remain to be covered In dirt and paw prints. The cutlass' heartbeat is a 250 horsepower â€Å"Rocket† 350 VI Chevrolet small block tutor, producing 355 lbs. F torque at 2600 Revolutions per Minute (RPM), with a compression ratio of 9:1 (Oldsmobile Informational). It is naturally aspirated with a two barrel carburetor and Is coupled with the optional Hydra-Metal 3-speed turbo 350 transmission, together producing a 10:8 horsepower to weight ratio (Horsham). From there, the power is transferred to the rear axle. This axle is a four-link live axle type, with 3. 23:1 gears inst alled. This gear ratio was the â€Å"all-round† preferred set to meet somewhere In the middle of top economy and maximum performance (Oldsmobile Informational).With all that â€Å"GO,† this car weighing in at 3650 lbs, (while full of gals needs lots of â€Å"WHOA. † It has drum brakes with self-adjusting dual master cylinders, and 9. 5†³ cast-alloy drums installed on all four corners to bring everything to a stop. The body Is Just shy of 202†³ In length, 76†³ wide, and is mounted on a 112†³ wheel base chassis (Oldsmobile Cutlass). It Is composed of K-braced front cross members and frame torque boxes, which allow for a lower body floor. The rear axle is Informational). This features large coil springs and double-action shock absorbers. The front suspension carries 56. Of the overall car weight (Oldsmobile Cutlass), and is a double wishbone (A frame) design with coil springs and dual action shocks as was for the rear axle. Perhaps one of the mo st common and well known automatic transmission ever produced was General Motors' Turbo 350. The Turbo 350 is a fully automatic transmission made up of a 3-element hydraulic torque converter and two planetary gear sets. The planetary gear sets are used in conjunction with four multiple-disc clutches, two roller clutches, and an intermediate overrun band to obtain proper fiction elements necessary (350 Turbo).Weighing in at 120 lbs. ND being 21 – %† long (Novak), this cast aluminum transmission is much larger than the manual style it replaced and was left unpainted. It is easily distinguishable by its oil pan which is chamfered on the rear passenger side corner, and its integral bell housing. It holds 5 quarts of automatic transmission fluid. They are also identified by the transmission model and code numbers stamped on the side of the servo. This identification will include a prefix code letter(s), followed by a 5, the year of production, and the serial number of the tr ansmission itself (Former).The transmission itself offers three driving SE selections labeled â€Å"D,† â€Å"S,† and â€Å"L. † Normal driving is achieved by selecting the â€Å"S† range. This allows the car to start in first, shift to second and third. As speed decreases, it will automatically shift back down and provide small engine braking. In the â€Å"L† range, the transmission is not allowed to shift into any gear except 1st. This is designed to receive the most power for pulling or for steep inclines and heavy engine braking. The last selection is â€Å"D,† named for the forced detent downshifts.In this range, the transmission can be downshifted from fourth to third and third to second within a select speed range. Reverse is equally as important and is achieved through the use of a friction clutch through adequate oil pressure. This friction clutch is unable to engage after a speed of MPH in the forward motion by a blocker piston to prevent accidentally selecting reverse will moving forward. By putting the transmission in park, the output shaft is locked to the transmission case via a parking pawl that grabs lugs on the backside of the reverse planet carrier.A detent prevents accidental movement into park while still moving in either direction (Former). The power flow in the transmission begins with the torque converter. It uses oil to hydraulically multiply torque when needed. It consists of three major elements, the converter pump, the turbine, and the stator. As the engine turns, it powers the pump, which works as a centrifugal style (much like a water pump) and flings hydraulic oil away from the center. As the oil begins to flow, it pushes on the turbine blades, the turbine is connected to the transmission, which then begins to have torque applied to it and spin as well.The fluid is then forced to change direction by the stator, which directs the fluid from the turbine back to the pump. This increases the e fficiency of he torque converter greatly. See Figure 1 . Figure 1 From the torque converter, the power is transferred to two gear sets in the transmission. Each gear set is made up of six major components, the sun gear (the main internal gear), four planetary gears, and an outside ring gear. Each one of these components can either be driven by the engine, or locked in place by a band clutch. Possibilities is what makes it possible for the transmission to shift.It is also equipped with one overrunning clutch. This is a one-way roller that allows engine braking to occur in first, second, and third gear. It achieves this by allowing the input shaft to spin faster, but never slower than the output shaft. Each of these actions are controlled by many different parts and materials working together. To begin is the valve body. This is the brain of the transmission, and ironically represents the looks of one. It is filled with many passages for oil to flow, each controlled by individual valv es. These valves may be controlled by many things, including the governor or manual linkages.The governor is attached to the output shaft of the transmission and senses the speed of the vehicle. As the speed increases, the governor weights egging to fly out, much like the governor setup of older tractor engines. As the weights fly out, the governor allows more oil to flow, as well as higher pressure. As certain pressures are reached, the valves in the valve body release, performing a function, such as releasing or contracting a band brake. See Figure 2. To begin in neutral, all clutches and overrun bands are released, allowing no power transfer from the torque converter to the output shaft.Oil flows from the pump to the regulator valve. When this pressure exceeds necessary line pressure, the excess is diverted to fill the converter. If the transmission is put into drive, or first gear, this engages the forward clutch set. It also locks the intermediate overrun roller clutch. The fro nt gear set receives clockwise power to the ring gear, while transmitting power via the sun gear to the rear unity, producing a converter torque ratio of approximately 2:25 at stall. The rear set receives power via the sun gear, and while the planetary gears are held, transmits the power to the ring gear.This produces The manual linkage directs line pressure to the Reverse, Neutral, and Drive ports, 2-3 shift line pressure is also increased to cushion when the next shift takes lace. The rear roller clutch freewheels in first gear and oil is directed to the gear set and is regulated by governor pressure. This pressure increases with vehicle speed, and acts as a cushion for the 1-2 shift valves. When the governor pressure reaches 46 Pounds per Square Inch (AS'), the oil pressure over powers the 1-2 valve spring which opens the valve.This shifts the transmission by directing drive oil to apply the intermediate clutch. The front gear set continues to receive power at the outer ring gear , however the inner sun gear is held, and the planetary gears provide the output power. This reduction ratio is approximately 1. 52 to 1. Everything else remains the same. This shift into second gear will happen between 42-49 MPH at full throttle, or 9-12 MPH at minimum throttle. As governor pressure continues to increase yet again, the 2-3 shift valve begins to become overpowered by the oil pressure.Once 77 SSI is reached, the direct clutch is engaged by the new oil, this shift is cushioned by the Reverse, Neutral, Drive oil pressure on the other side of the piston. At this point, the intermediate, direct, and forward clutch are now all engaged at once, and the overrun roller clutch is allowed to freewheel. Power is distributed to the front gear set through the sun gear drive shell and turn with a ratio of 1 . This shift into third gear typically happens between 70-79 MPH at full throttle, or approximately 20 MPH at minimum throttle.When reverse is engaged, the forward clutch is di sengaged, the direct clutch and low/reverse clutches are both engaged, and the intermediate roller allows oil pressure to enter the reverse valve circuit. Oil flows to the outer area of the direct clutch piston, to the outer area of the low and reverse clutch piston, and to both the 1-2 and 2-3 shift valves. It also acts on the reverse boost valve to increase line pressure to a maximum of 250 SSI at stall. This allows the vehicle to move in reverse by applying torque to the front gear sun gear drive shell and the sun gear.The reverse clutch is applied, which then prevents the carrier from turning. This reverses the rotation of the ring gear, causing reverse and a 1. 93:1 ratio. Much like manual transmissions, these turbo 350 transmissions are equipped with detente to hold each shift in place. Instead of the typical ball and spring, these detente act as valves to hold oil pressure on the downshift valves. These detente are activated by the downshift cable. Each of these valves (manua l control, shift, and detent), each act as a piston in a valve-less 2 stroke engine.As they move forward or back, they slowly open or close ports (or valves) for oil flow. See Figure 3. One of the only ways to check all of these functions in the transmission is to run a pressure test. With the brakes applied and the engine running at 1000 RPM, the SSI should be between 60-90 when in drive, between 85-150 SSI while in reverse, and between 55-70 SSI while in neutral. While in drive and the engine at idle, operating SSI should rest between 60 and 85 AS'. Other issues may be caused by worn clutches, bands, or shims. Correct input shaft end play should be between 0. 033†³ and . 064. Correcting this end play is done by adding or removing thrust washers located between the main oil pump and the direct clutch drum. Three thicknesses of pressure plates are used within the transmission. These are . 245†³-. 255†³, . 275†³-. 285†³, and . 305†³-. 315†³. A clear ance of 0. 010†³- 0. 080†³ should be obtained between the top faced plate and pressure plate. Each internal shaft is supported by bronze bushings. Each should be installed 0. 010†³ above flush (350 Turbo). After the power has exited the transmission through the output shaft, it has to transfer the torque to the axle, via a drive shaft.The drive shaft on the 1969 Oldsmobile Cutlass begins with a universal slip yoke that slides onto the output shaft of the transmission. This also doubles as a seal for the transmission tail housing and is installed with one once of lubrication and provided with a small vent hole on the back side of the slip yoke. The shaft itself is made of steel, and welded to cast iron yokes. The rear yoke is unique in the fact that it actually consists of a coupling yoke and two set of ball stud yokes. Each half of the yoke takes one half of the angle pitch.Whenever removing these ball stud Joints, be sure to reference disassembly of the connecting yo ke and both flanges to retain proper shaft balance. Each set of universal Joints have 25 roller bearings per cap, and have external retaining rings which hold them in place on the internal side of the yoke. The coupling yoke has two sets of ball yokes for the C. V. Joint. These are also held by retainer clips. Once the propeller shaft is installed in the car, it must meet runabout specifications. Being measured at 5†³ from the front weld, in the center of the shaft, and at 2†³ from the rear led, the shaft must be equal to or less than 0. 24†³ of runabout. Flange runabout must not exceed 0. 008†³ Transmission angle should be set at % degrees, and shims should be added or removed to obtain proper setting. Differential nose angle should be set at 10 % degrees, and is corrected by adding or removing shims at the axle. CAUTION: The four point live axle is driven from the propeller type drive shaft. This axle allows the engine torque to be transmitted into a perpendicu lar direction. This Cutlass is equipped with A 10 bolt differential (referring to the number of bolts in the differential cover) and 3. 3:1 gears.It is easily spotted by the ribs on the side of the housing and is commonly known as a â€Å"P† style rear axle. The pinion gear stem is 1. 625†³ in diameter and uses 30 spines to connect to the yoke of the drive shaft and drives an 8. 5†³ ring gear. The ring gear itself has 42 teeth, and the pinion has 13 in total (Former). Each axle is machined with 28 spines and use two sealed ball bearings on the end of the axle with an oil seal located inside the axle tube behind the sealed bearings. They have a bolt-in design and do not use c-clips to stay in place (Rolling).The rear axle has a removable carrier. The pinion is mounted by two tapered roller bearings that are preloaded by a collapsible spacer. The pinion depth is set using a shim between the pinion head and the rear pinion bearing. Two tapered roller bearings also supp ort the differential itself. These are preloaded and the differential backlash is set using two threaded sleeves between the bearings and pedestals. This preloaded should be set using inch pounds, and should be 8-12 in/lbs. Using used bearings, or 24-32 in/lbs. Using new ones.The side gears and pinions mounted in the differential are held in place by a lock screw and are backed with thrust washers. Backlash for the pinion to ring gear must be set between 0. 005-0. 009†³, and variation over the entire ring gear backlash must not exceed 0. 002†³. Pinion depth is achieved using cast iron production shims and vary from 0. 210-0. 272†³ in increments of 0. 002†³. Pinions depth will be marked on the pinion gear face. Once proper depth is achieved, the front pinion nut should have been marked before disassembly, then tightened to 1/16†³ past the mark made before.The axles should be bolted into place and have no more than 0. 020†³ end play. If more end play is p resent, the sealed roller bearings should be replaced. The differential should be filled to within 3/8†³ of the filler hole, or roughly around 4 h Pits. Of S. A. E. 90 GAL.-5 Gear lubricant. Parts for this Cutlass are very readily available as it is a fairly common terrain as well as one that is fairly new as well. Many local parts stores such as Scarcest, Nap, or Advance Auto Parts would carry much of what any restoration would ask for.For those hard to find parts, many salvage yards such as CT Auto Ranch out of Denton TX has many salvaged cutlass' in stock and parts ready to ship. Other resources may include magazines and blobs such as Hemming Motor News, or Olds Club of America. Naturally, many internet sources exist as well such as Rocket. Com, Illiterateness. Com, Summit Racing, or even Pops. Com. Anything related to the transmission can be found quite easily as it is one of the most common transmissions out there. The detersives yoke however, may be a different story as i t is a strange set up with the double rear yoke.If one is not available at a salvage yard, there are many companies around who make custom drive shafts such as Anta's, or Dyne's Detersives companies. Technical information is also available quite easily and quickly for this car and Just about anything on it. To start is the Olds Club of America. This club is dedicated to Oldsmobile only and has connections to people who have the answers, they have classified ads, and even Judging guidelines. Another very good source for information MI, the center has many original service manuals, brochures, and catalogues available in person, or on their website.Any original manual is a great place to start. The â€Å"Motor's Automatic Transmission Manual† is a 740 page volume that includes 240 pages of oil circuit diagrams of which the majority are in color. This book is mentioned in one of my sources. Original pamphlets or brochures are a great source or technical information or selling poi nts of these cars and their components. If all else fails, many blobs and posts are out there on car geek sites to help those tech savvy restorers out there to find the information they need. The research of this paper really taught me a lot.The Olds Cutlass used to be Just a car parked in the back of the shed, and as I grew older it slowly began to mean more and more to me, however I have never taken the time to really look into it. It's one of those things that you see or walk by every day, but never step back and actually look at it. This paper gave me a new perspective on an old car, my father's old car. I was shocked with how much information is out there for the Cutlass, and not Just any cutlass, for whichever make or model you may have. Information, brochures, pictures, and clubs are fairly abundant for the Oldsmobile, which is something that I am definitely not used to.Naturally, I learned a lot about the car, all the options available, trim packages, and where to find this kind of information. I also learned a lot about automatic transmissions, which is something I have never looked at in depth before. It took a while to get my head wrapped around it all, but it makes sense now that it has had the time to sink in. It is amazing how much can go into such a small item, let alone an entire car. The amount of specifications, dimensions, tolerances, and other information is absolutely endless. At least for a car of this era.

The Technology And Its Effects On The Mind Of Teaching

Maria Montessori is an amazing and innovative person. She developed a new way of teaching children, and in that teaching she developed the senses instead of merely testing the senses. One of the most innovative ways of teaching the senses is through the sensorial materials. Auto-education is the human ability to construct the knowledge in the brain through the manipulation and handling the sensorial materials. For example, if a child chooses to work with the knobbed cylinder while manipulating the material he is able to develop visual discrimination of size, which leads to observing one’s environment with an intelligent eye, he is able to develop concentration, order coordination and independence. Also, he is able to exercise†¦show more content†¦Montessori sensorial provides them materials that give them experience to develop their senses such as visual, auditory, olfactory gustatory and tactile. Some of the materials that will help them develop their senses unconsci ously are the pink cubes, red rods, brown stairs, wherein it gives them the experience that develop their visual sense, discrimination of size and grading. The second stage is the conscious absorbent mind that occurs between ages three to six. During this age, the child consciously selects experiences to focus. For example, when a child chooses to manipulate geometric solids, color tablets, sound cylinders, and tactile tablets, etc. Repetition is highly important in the sensorial materials, as well as movement. By repeating an activity, you master a skill and also have a higher and higher success rate. If you do an activity once and never return to that activity then you do not truly develop the sense that you are trying to master. It’s as if you want to learn the piano but only play a scale once. Movement is also important because it helps solidify lessons. For example, in a later presentation of the binomial and trinomial cubes, a student may be asked to build the cubes on a table that is across the room from the pieces. The development of the will is an ability to choose something without being aware in developing slowly over the beginning phase of life and is reinforced through practice, which isShow MoreRelatedImpact Of Technology On Learning And Teaching841 Words   |  4 Pagesthat in mind, technology is going to be the driving force behind gain those skills. With this in mind, the focus of the research should focus on the following questions; what impact does a one to one technology initiative have on learning and teaching? What training and professional development must be required for teachers, students, and administrators to ensure that it fulfills the learning objectives of a school? These questions center primarily on understanding the impact that technology can haveRead MoreThe Benefits Of Early Childhood Education1015 Words   |  5 Pagesprepared to deal with stress in the classroom and can affect the students you are teaching. Becomi ng a teacher you are exploring and teaching young minds by developing their own skills. They need to be prepared for the stress and impact it can have on a persons life. Because each student that walks into your classroom has a different story, culture, background, and religion. Its the balance of teaching these young minds equally but not equally at the same time. Mostly because some students grown upRead More Postmans Amusing Ourselves to Death Essay678 Words   |  3 Pagesreplaced by the age of television. This has changed the way we look at the world and the way we think, which in turn has almost made us less intelligent. Postman speaks his opinions freely, and really gives the reader a new perspective on media, and the effect it has on society. To often we think nothing of what we see and read in the media, but after reading this book you see things a lot differently. Postman believes that the culture is shaped by how its media is conducted. In the age of typographyRead MoreTechnology Has Changed Our Society Essay1425 Words   |  6 PagesRATIONALE The predominance of technology has significantly influenced our society. Technology is being used all over the place, anywhere and is instant. When we say technology, it can mean a lot of things. But according to the New Zealand Ministry of Education, â€Å"technology is the use of practical and intellectual resources to develop products and systems (technological outcomes) that expand human possibilities by addressing needs and realising opportunities.† Technology is currently more complex andRead MoreTechnology And Its Impact On The Classroom1277 Words   |  6 Pages Technology in Classroom Ali Boholaiga Kathrine Barrett ELI 084 Technology in Classroom Technology is all over our minds and concerns whether in regard to social impact, dependency or its use at educational institutions. It is currently the most debated issue in our modern society. Technology, it is believed, will become necessary for our survival in the future. It is the agent who will preserve the human race. The use of technology in classrooms is one example thatRead MoreHow the Digital World May Influence Teaching1157 Words   |  5 Pagesby information, global competition and new technologies that are changing the way we think, live and work.† (Pillay, Boulton-Lewis Wilss 2004, p.17). This conveys the notion that technology has manipulated the minds of today’s generation in every way possible, could be during schooling and non-schooling life. Hence in order for one’s teaching style to go successful one should teach in accordance to the characteristics of the generation they’re teaching as today’s generation requires a digital ped agogyRead MoreThe Intervention Of Biotechnology On Life Takes Two Forms Of Therapy And Enhancement1705 Words   |  7 PagesThe intervention of biotechnology in life takes two forms of therapy and enhancement. Andrew Lustig, author of the article Enhancement Technologies and the Person: Christian Perspectives, defines both accordingly, saying that â€Å"therapy is generally defined as the prevention or cure of disease, or as the restoration or approximation of return to normal physiological function. Enhancement is defined as the alteration of individual (or group) characteristics, traits, and abilities (both health- and non-health-related)Read MoreEffect Of Mind Wandering On The Processing Of Relevant And Irrelevant Events888 Words   |  4 Pages; Greer, J ; Smallwood, J. (2011). Absorbed in thought: the effect of mind wandering on the processing of relevant and irrelevant events. Psychological Science, 22 (5), 596-601. doi: 10.1177/0956797611404083 As outline on this study mind wandering emerges in the human mind through direct effects from the external environment (Barron, Riby, Greer, Smallwood, 2011). This report conducts an analytical study on the possibilities of mind wandering and how these activities are triggered, analysing whatRead MoreTechnology Is An Integral Part Of Education845 Words   |  4 PagesIn this present day of rapidly changing technology and transitioning education, our perception of learning and technology in the traditional way has to change. We as educators must adapt and make adjustments in a world that is constantly changing. I believe that technology is an integral part of society and it is here to stay; therefore, it should be an integral part of education. For that reason, schools must introduce the use of technology into learning assignments by any means necessary includingRead MoreThe Illusion Of Technology1535 Words   |  7 PagesThe Illusion of Technology The thinking process of a child’s mind is one of the most significant aspects of their development. The neuropathways intrinsically wired into the central nervous system can be incredibly impacted by the rapid over load that technology constantly exposes children to. A child’s brain is like a sponge, and when electronic devices are repeatedly absorbed, there are some serious long term effects. This can hinder children’s physiological development, attention span, reading

Nora Helmer And Nils Pavlov - 926 Words

I. Introduction A. Torvald Helmer and Nils Krogstad are both men who use Nora Helmer in hope of advancing or protecting his career; but Nils is the one who releases Nora, while Torvald tries to tighten his control over Nora. B. Identify the complete title and author’s name and give the date of publication of the play. Give a brief summary of the plot. C. Nils Krogstad is a better man than Torvald Helmer because of the hope he has about the future and his change of heart about blackmailing the Helmers. II. Both Nils and Torvald use or try to use Nora for personal advancement. A. In Act I (1743-1744), Krogstad informs Nora that her forgery of her father’s name is a fraud against Krogstad and threatens to expose her to Torvald In Act III, Torvald reads Krogstad’s letter and verbally attacks Nora. B. In Act III, Torvald tells Nora, â€Å"you’ve wrecked all my happiness-ruined my whole fortune† (1769). C. Nils Krogstad is trying to protect his job and his children, and is â€Å"less of a traditional villain when we realize that he is fighting for his job at the bank† (Witham and Lutterbie, 1785). Torvald Helmer is using Nora as a pretty doll to keep up appearances that will help him in his job, and Torvald even attempts to keep Nori from eating macaroons because of this focus on beauty. According to Toril Moi, â€Å"Helmer is worried that Nora will destroy her pretty teeth† (Moi 262). D. Krogstad is trying to do good, being able to take care of his children, in a wrong way; but the attempt